Benchmark Research Supporting Our Work

By Marie Nelson and Annie O’Shaughnessy using AI-Generated Research

Decades of educational and psychological research inform Starling Collaborative's three benchmarks below. These benchmarks help determine if the most powerful indicators of whole school changes are occurring.

1. Belonging and Connectedness Drive Outcomes 

Belonging: Several key studies and authors have contributed significantly to the understanding of a student's sense of belonging in schools. Goodenow (1993) explored the relationship between belongingness and academic motivation, emphasizing the importance of students feeling accepted by their peers. Osterman (2000) provided a comprehensive overview of the concept, linking a sense of belonging to various outcomes, including emotional well-being and academic performance. Walton and Cohen (2011) conducted experiments that demonstrated how affirming students' sense of belonging can improve their academic performance, particularly in challenging social environments. Additionally, the work of Deci and Ryan (2000) on self-determination theory highlights the role of belonging in fostering intrinsic motivation and engagement in learning.

Connectedness: Key authors and their findings related to a students’ sense of connectedness in schools include: Reschly and Christenson (2012), who identified that connectedness to school significantly improves student engagement and academic performance. McNeely and Falci (2004) demonstrated that students with strong school connections are less likely to participate in risky behaviors and more likely to maintain positive relationships. Wehlage et al. (1996) emphasized that fostering connectedness contributes to a supportive school climate, which is vital for student success. Additionally, Finn (1989) highlighted that academic engagement is closely tied to students' feelings of belonging and connectedness, suggesting that schools should prioritize these relationships. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) emphasizes that school connectedness is a critical factor in promoting students' health and well-being. Their research indicates that when students feel connected to their school environment, they are less likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as substance abuse and violence. Additionally, school connectedness is associated with higher academic achievement and improved mental health outcomes. The CDC highlights that fostering a supportive school climate and encouraging positive relationships among students and staff can significantly enhance connectedness, leading to better overall student outcomes.

2. Safety and Respect are Preconditions for Learning

Safety: Research indicates a strong link between students' sense of safety and their academic performance. For example, a study by McNeely and Falci (2004) found that students who feel safe in their school environment demonstrate higher academic achievement and engagement. Additionally, a report from the National Center for Mental Health Promotion and Youth Violence Prevention emphasizes that a safe school climate contributes to students' emotional well-being, which in turn enhances their ability to learn effectively. Moreover, the work of Cohen et al. (2009) suggests that feelings of safety can reduce anxiety and distractions, allowing students to focus better on their studies and perform at higher levels.

Respect: Research indicates a strong correlation between students' feelings of being respected and their academic performance as well as success in life. For instance, a study by Anderson and McMillan (2003) found that students who feel respected by their teachers and peers are more likely to engage actively in their learning and demonstrate higher academic achievement. Additionally, research by Wentzel (1998) shows that perceived respect within the school environment fosters a sense of belonging, which is linked to greater motivation and better educational outcomes. Furthermore, a study by Malecki and Demaray (2003) highlights that respect from adults in the school setting is associated with students’ social-emotional skills, which are critical for future success in life.

3. Student Voice Fosters Engagement and Agency

Voice: Key findings on student voice indicate that when students are given opportunities to express their opinions and actively participate in their education, several positive outcomes emerge. Fielding (2001) found that students who feel their voices are heard show increased engagement and motivation, leading to better academic performance. Cook-Sather (2006) noted that initiatives promoting student voice foster a sense of ownership over their learning, which correlates with higher achievement levels. Additionally, the OECD (2019) report highlights that student agency, including the ability to voice opinions and influence decisions, is crucial for developing skills necessary for success in future careers and personal life.

Benchmark Research Citation List

• Goodenow, C. (1993). Classroom belongingness and academic motivation in early adolescence: Relationships to self-system variables and task engagement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13(3), 337–361.

• Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323–367.

• Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451.

• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.

• Reschly, A. L., & Christenson, S. L. (2012). Jingle, jangle, or just good constructs: The relationship between student engagement and academic achievement. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 51–72). Springer.

• McNeely, C. A., & Falci, C. (2004). School connectedness and the transition into and out of health-risk behavior among adolescents: A comparison of social-area communities. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 238–246.

• Wehlage, G. G., Ostendorf, L., & Smith, A. J. (1996). School restructuring and student results: The centrality of relationship. Wisconsin Center for Education Research, School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

• Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59(2), 117–142.

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). School connectedness: Strategies for increasing protective factors among youth. Division of Adolescent and School Health.

• McNeely, C. A., & Falci, C. (2004). School connectedness and the transition into and out of health-risk behavior among adolescents: A comparison of social-area communities. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 238–246.

• National Center for Mental Health Promotion and Youth Violence Prevention. (n.d.). [Title of Specific Report or Resource on Safe School Climate, e.g., Fostering a Safe and Supportive School Climate]. 

• Cohen, J., McCabe, E. M., Michelli, N. M., & Pickeral, T. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record, 111(1), 180–213.

• Anderson, E., & MacMillan, R. (2003). School satisfaction and student involvement. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 28(4), 464–480.

• Anderson, E., & MacMillan, R. (2003). School satisfaction and student involvement. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 28(4), 464–480.

• Wentzel, K. R. (1998). Social relationships and motivation in middle school: The role of parents, teachers, and peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 202–209.

• Malecki, C. K., & Demaray, M. K. (2003). Measuring perceived social support: Development and evaluation of the Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale (CASS). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 21(3), 258–275.

• Fielding, M. (2001). Students as radical agents of change. Journal of Educational Change, 2(1), 123–141.

• Cook-Sather, A. (2006). Sound, voice, and sign: Rearticulating the work of engaging with student voice in educational reform. Curriculum Inquiry, 36(3), 283–299.

• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2019). OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030: OECD learning compass 2030. OECD Publishing.